The Battle of Chippawa During the War of 1812

The Battle of Chippawa was fought on July 5, 1814, during the War of 1812 (1812-1815). Crossing the Niagara River in July 1814, American forces led by Major General Jacob Brown sought to capture the Niagara Peninsula and defeat British troops under Major General Phineas Riall. Responding, Riall moved against a detachment of Browns army led by Brigadier General Winfield Scott on July 5. Meeting near Chippawa Creek, Scotts well-drilled troops repulsed Rialls assault and drove the British from the field. The fighting at Chippawa showed that American troops were capable of standing up to British regulars. Uniting after the battle, Brown and Scott engaged Riall again on July 25 at the bloody Battle of Lundys Lane.   Background In the wake of a series of embarrassing defeats along the Canadian frontier, Secretary of War John Armstrong made several changes in the command structure of American forces in the north. Among those to benefit from Armstrongs changes were Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott who were raised to the ranks of major general and brigadier general. Given command of the Left Division of the Army of the North, Brown was tasked with training the men with the goal of launching an assault against the key British base at Kingston, ON and mounting a diversionary attack across the Niagara River. Major General Jacob Brown and Brigadier General Winfield Scott. Public Domain Preparations While planning moved forward, Brown ordered two Camps of Instruction formed at Buffalo and Plattsburgh, NY. Leading the Buffalo camp, Scott worked tirelessly drilling and instilling discipline in his men. Using the 1791 Drill Manual from the French Revolutionary Army, he standardized orders and maneuvers as well as purged incompetent officers. In addition, Scott instructed his men in proper camp procedures, including sanitation, which reduced disease and sickness. Intending his men to be clothed in the standard blue uniforms of the US Army, Scott was disappointed when insufficient blue material was found. While enough was located for the 21st U.S. Infantry, the remainder of the men at Buffalo were forced to make due with the gray uniforms that were typical of the American militia. While Scott worked at Buffalo through the spring of 1814, Brown was forced to alter his plans due to a lack of cooperation from Commodore Isaac Chauncey who commanded the American fleet on Lake Ontario. Browns Plan Rather than launch an assault against Kingston, Brown elected to make the attack across the Niagara his main effort. Training complete, Brown divided his army into two brigades under Scott and Brigadier General Eleazer Ripley. Recognizing Scotts ability, Brown assigned him four regiments of regulars and two companies of artillery. Moving across the Niagara River, Browns men attacked and quickly took lightly defended Fort Erie. The next day, Brown was reinforced by a mixed force of militia and Iroquois under Brigadier General Peter Porter. That same day, Brown instructed Scott to move north along the river with the goal of getting above Chippawa Creek before British forces could make a stand along its banks. Racing forward, Scott was not in time as scouts found Major General Phineas Rialls 2,100-men force massed just north of the creek. Retreating a south a short distance, Scott encamped below Streets Creek while Brown took the remainder of the army west with the goal of crossing the Chippawa further upstream. Not anticipating any action, Scott planned for a belated Independence Day parade on July 5. Major General Phineas Riall. Public Domain Fast Facts: Battle of Chippawa Conflict: War of 1812 (1812-1815)Dates: July 5, 1814Armies Commanders:United StatesMajor General Jacob BrownBrigadier General Winfield Scott3,500 menGreat BritainMajor General Phineas Riall2,100 menCasualties:United States: 61 killed and 255 woundedGreat Britain: 108 killed, 350 wounded, and 46 captured Contact is Made To the north, Riall, believing that Fort Erie was still holding out, planned to move south on July 5 with the goal of relieving the garrison. Early that morning, his scouts and Native American troops began skirmishing with the American outposts north and west of Streets Creek. Brown dispatched a contingent of Porters unit to drive off the Rialls men. Advancing, they beat back the skirmishers but spotted Rialls advancing columns. Retreating, they informed Brown of the British approach. At this time, Scott was moving his men over the creek in anticipation of their parade (Map). Scott Triumphs Informed of Rialls actions by Brown, Scott continued his advance and placed his four guns to the right along the Niagara. Extending his line west from the river, he deployed the 22nd Infantry on the right, with the 9th and 11th in the center, and the 25th on the left. Advancing his men in line of battle, Riall spotted the gray uniforms and anticipated an easy victory over what he believed to be militia. Opening fire with three guns, Riall was surprised by the resilience of the Americans and reportedly uttered, Those are regulars, by God! Pushing his men forward, Rialls lines became ragged as his men moved over uneven terrain. As the lines neared, the British halted, fired a volley, and continued their advance. Seeking a quick victory, Riall ordered his men to surge forward, opening a gap on his right flank between the end of his line and a nearby wood. Seeing an opportunity, Scott advanced and turned the 25th to take Rialls line in the flank. As they poured a devastating fire into the British, Scott sought to trap the enemy. Wheeling the 11th to the right and the 9th and 22nd into the left, Scott was able to strike the British on three sides. After absorbing a pounding from Scotts men for around twenty-five minutes, Riall, whose coat had been pierced by a bullet, ordered his men to retreat. Covered by their guns and the 1st Battalion of the 8th Foot, the British withdrew back towards the Chippawa with Porters men harassing their rear. Aftermath The Battle of Chippawa cost Brown and Scott 61 killed and 255 wounded, while Riall suffered 108 killed, 350 wounded, and 46 captured. Scotts victory ensured the progress of Browns campaign and the two armies met again on July 25 at the Battle of Lundys Lane. The victory at Chippawa was a turning point for the US Army and showed that American soldiers could defeat the veteran British with proper training and leadership. Legend states that the gray uniforms worn by the cadets at the U.S. Military Academy at West Point are meant to commemorate Scotts men at Chippawa, though this is disputed. The battlefield is currently preserved as Chippawa Battlefield Park and is administered through the Niagara Parks Commission.

A Secularization - The Effects Of The Early Reformation

â€Å"A Secularization – The Effects of the Early Reformation† In Philip Benedict’s article in response to Brad Gregory’s novel, The Unintended Reformation: How a Religious Revolution Secularized Society; Benedict addresses the long-term effects that the early Reformation had on the modern world. The articles objective is to explain how things came to be as they are institutionally and ideology in the contemporary Western world and to provide an explanation of how the past became the present. According to Benedict, Gregory argues that the religious upheavals and sociopolitical disruptions during the Reformation era were the major events that led to today’s modern secularism, while Gregory suggests (2012), Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation contributed to the rise of capitalism and consumerism as we are familiar with it currently. In his novel, Gregory challenges the fact that the Reformation was misleading; since reform means to improve, but by setting out to abolish the religious authority of the Catholic popes, the Reformation ended up destroying religion as a whole, and resulting in the privatization of it. In general, the core of a healthy society consisted of faith and religion, even despite it being forced into private life and disallowed in public. Whatever the Reformers tried to do backfired and instead led to the development of modern secularism, with ethics becoming individualized and subjective (Gregory, 2012). The consequences created a religiousShow MoreRelatedHow the Renaissance, Reformation, and Scientific Revolution Led to a More Secular and Democrtatic Society1437 Words   |  6 PagesSocial Revolutions Lead to Political Reform: How the Renaissance, Reformation, and Scientific Revolution Led to a more Secular and Democratic Political Atmosphere. 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The Relationship of Childhood Sexual Abuse to Teenage Pregnancy Free Essays

Running Head: RESEARCH ARTICLE REVIEW Research Article Review The Relationship of Childhood Sexual Abuse to Teenage Pregnancy Ashlee L. Glover Lindenwood University The Relationship of Childhood Sexual Abuse to Teenage Pregnancy I. Questions and Answers 1. We will write a custom essay sample on The Relationship of Childhood Sexual Abuse to Teenage Pregnancy or any similar topic only for you Order Now â€Å"The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and teenage pregnancy† (Roosa, Tein, Reinholtz, Angelini, 1997). 2. â€Å"Three research questions guided this effort. First, do women who were sexually abused as children and women who had teenage pregnancy have similar developmental backgrounds (sociodemographic and risk factor profiles)? Second, does the risk for teenage pregnancy differ, based on whether a woman was sexually abused as a child, sexually precocious, or both? Third, does childhood sexual abuse contribute to an increased risk of having a teenage pregnancy after the influence of other factors related to teenage pregnancy (e. g. , social class) have been accounted for† (Roosa et al. 1997)? 3. â€Å"We expect victims of sexual abuse to have first voluntary coitus earlier, to be less likely to use contraception, to be more likely to participate in high-risk sexual behaviors (e. g. , sex with strangers), and to have a higher number of sexual partners than their peers who were not sexually abused† (Roosa et al. , 1997). 4. The variables being studied is sexual history, High-risk sexual behavior, Sexual abuse, Sexual history pa thways, childhood physical abuse, and High-risk behaviors. Roosa et al. , 1997). 5. The participants were 2,003 women, 18 to 22 years old, living in Arizona. (Roosa et al. , 1997). 6. â€Å"Participants completed the questionnaire alone or in groups. They recorded their responses on computer-scored answer sheets to ease data entry and minimize errors. After completing the questionnaire, a participant placed her answer sheet in an envelope, sealed the envelope, and gave it to either the project manager or agency representative† (Roosa et al. , 1997). 7. We used chi-square and analysis of variance to compare sociodemographic and risk factor profiles of (a) women who were sexually abused as children with their non-abused peers and (b) women who had teenage pregnancy with those who did not. Next, we compared the incidence of teenage pregnancy for five sexual history pathways using chi-square. Finally, we used logistic regression to determine whether experiences of childhood sexua l abuse contributed to risk for teenage pregnancy after the influences of other variables had been accounted for† (Roosa et al. 1997). 8. â€Å"The results of our study do not support arguments that sexual abuse is a major contributor to the risk for teenage pregnancy† (Roosa et al. , 1997). 9. The importance of the findings is that childhood sexual abuse contributed little to the likelihood of teenage pregnancy. The severity of sexual abuse was not significantly related to teenage pregnancy. Sexual abuse followed by sexual precocity was related to a higher risk of teenage pregnancy for some. (Roosa et al. , 1997). 10. The results were limited by two methodological factors. First, the sample, although large, was a sample of convenience from a single state, and participants were slightly more educated than the average for this cohort. Second, this was a cross-sectional study that relied on the recall of events that occurred several necessary years prior to the surveyâ₠¬  (Roosa et al. , 1997). 11. â€Å"It may be important for future studies to identify factors that explain the risk associated with sexual abuse for these subgroups† (Roosa et al. , 1997). It was also stated that in the future longitudinal studies are necessary to establish causality. Roosa et al. , 1997). II. Summary The United States has the highest rate of teenage pregnancy with about 25 percent of all U. S. women having a pregnancy by the age of 18 (Roosa et al. , 1997). The purpose of this study was to determine if childhood sexual abuse is a factor associated with an increased risk for teenage pregnancies (Roosa et al. , 1997). Recent studies have reported that sexual abuse is more common among pregnant teenagers than in general population and therefore could possibly be a major contributor to teenage pregnancy. Many mechanisms have been proposed to explain the linkage between childhood sexual abuse and teenage pregnancy. Roosa et al. , (1997) outlined several mechanisms including (a) some teenage pregnancies may be the direct result of sexual abuse, (b) childhood sexual abuse may socialize female victims to believe that their purpose in life is to fulfill the sexual needs of others, (c) the lowered self-esteem of sexual abuse victims may make them more vulnerable to males’ sexual advances, and (d) victims of incest may plan pregnancies as a means of escaping from their victimization. Three research questions guided this effort: First, do women who were sexually abused as children and women who had teenage pregnancy have similar developmental backgrounds (sociodemographic and risk factor profiles)? Second, does the risk for teenage pregnancy differ, based on whether a woman was sexually abused as a child, sexually precocious, or both? And for those who experienced both abuse and precocity, does the relative timing of these events make a difference in risk for teenage pregnancy? Third, does childhood sexual abuse contribute to an increased risk of having a teenage pregnancy after the influence of other factors related to teenage pregnancy (e. g. , social class) have been accounted for? (Roosa et al. , 1997) The variables being studied are sexual history, high-risk sexual behavior, sexual abuse, sexual history pathways, childhood physical abuse, and high-risk behaviors. Sexual history was assessed by asking about the respondent’s age of menarche, first coital experience, use of birth control, and pregnancy (Roosa et al. 1997). Any pregnancy occurring before age 18 was labeled a teenage pregnancy. High risk sexual behavior was described as anyone who had sex for alcohol, drugs, or money; having sex with strangers, having multiple sex partners, and not using birth control (Roosa et al. , 1997). Roosa et al. , (1997) used five mutually sexual history pathways to examine the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and teenage pregnancy: One pathway rep resented those who reported no precocious sexual activity and no sexual abuse before the age of 18. A second pathway represented women who were sexually abused before age 18 with no precocious sexual activity. A third pathway represented those who had been abused before their first precocious sexual experience. A fourth pathway represented those who had been abused before age 18 but after their first precocious sexual experience. A fifth pathway represented participants who had not experienced any sexual abuse before the age of 18 but who were sexually precocious. The last measures used were childhood physical abuse. Eight questions dealing with spanking and hitting adapted from the Conflict Tactics Scale (Roosa et al. , 1997). Participants were 2,003 women, 18 to 22 years old, living in Arizona (Roosa et al. , 1997). Participation was limited to this age range to reduce reporting bias due to widely varying time intervals since sexual history events occurred (Roosa et al. , 1997). The women were recruited at 44 sites in urban and rural areas throughout Arizona (Roosa eta l. , 1997). Participants completed the questionnaire alone or in groups, with assistance from the project manager (Roosa et al. 1997). They recorded their responses on computer-scored answer sheets to ease data entry and minimize error (Roosa et al. , 1997). To analyze the results chi-square and analysis of variance were used to compare sociodemographic and risk factor profiles of (a) women who were sexually abused as children with their non-abused peers and (b) women who had a teenage pregnancy with those who did not (Roosa et a l. , 1997). Next, they compared the incidence of teenage pregnancy for five sexual history pathways using chi-square (Roosa et al. , 1997). Finally, they used logistic regression to determine whether experiences of childhood sexual abuse contributed to the risk for teenage pregnancy after the influences of other variables had been accounted for (Roosa et al. , 1997). Using data from 2,003 women this study took three approaches to examine the relationship between childhood sexual abuse and the likelihood of teenage pregnancy. The results of the study did not support the argument that sexual abuse is a major contributor to the risk for teenage pregnancy (Roosa et al. , 1997). Childhood sexual abuse contributed little to the likelihood of teenage pregnancy in this sample (Roosa et al. , 1997). According to Roosa et al. , (1997), it may be important for future studies to identify factors that explain the risk associated with sexual abuse of different subgroups. Regardless of the strengths of associations found or the number of factors statically controlled, it cannot be determined which relationships may be casual and which may be spurious (Roosa et al. , 1997). Longitudinal studies are necessary to establish causality. How to cite The Relationship of Childhood Sexual Abuse to Teenage Pregnancy, Papers

Pornography Its Place In Our Society Essay Example For Students

Pornography Its Place In Our Society Essay As the debate over pornography and its place in society grows hotter every day, several authors in particular shed a new light on the subject. Both their intuition and insight involving their beliefs can help the reader a great deal in seeing aspects of this debate that might have otherwise gone without the consideration that they so deserve. I believe that pornography is not only okay, but is allowing our country to take a step back and ask ourselves how far we are willing to go and what we are willing to sacrifice in order to preserve free speech and our rights to personal choice. The argument over pornography is not merely the debate over right or wrong, but also involves the theory that its existence requires, or possibly even causes, an inequality between men and women. I ask you, how could something like pornography cause an in-equality between men and women when women are the major contributors to the industry? Who is going to watch a porn without women in it? Therefore, at least at first glance, it would seem that since women are actively contributing to the business of pornography maybe they should be criticized at least equally if not more so than the men who watch it. According to author J.M. Coetzee and his article The Harms of Pornography, the real questions here are, what is the difference between obscenity and pornography, and even more importantly, where do we draw the line between the two? Coetzee brings up a good point here. A point on which the entire debate over pornography hinges. What is the defenition of obscenity? An excerpt from a speech by Mike Godwin, Online Counsel for the Electronic Frontier Foundation, gives a good definition of obscenity in his on-line article: Fear of Freedom: The Backlash Against Free Speech on the Net'. Everybody more or less knows something about what qualifies as obscene. You know it has something to do with community standards, right? Andwith appealing to the prurient interest. A work has to be a patentlyoffensive depiction of materials banned by state statute and appeal to theprurient interest to be obscene and it also has to meet one otherrequirement. It also has to lack serious literary, artistic, social,political or scientific value. Thats how something is classified asobscene.Godwin states that one of the criteria for decency or absence of obscenity is that something must contain social political or scientific value. Is it possible that pornography is an outlet for people that prevents ideas that start out as fantasies or desires from becoming real? If so, then its possible that the porn industry is doing us a bigger favor than we know.In an article written by Donna A. Demac, the history of censorship, obscenity, pornography and the rights of the people are conveyed with a decidedly liberal attitude. Demacs article gives an intelligent overview as to the actions of various political parties, groups and activists that have fought either for or against some of the issues regarding pornography, and his article can be effectively used to defend free speech. The most opinionated and conservative of the authors included is Catherine MacKinnon, who touches on the thought that there is a great deal of similarity between pornography and black slavery. In her article Pornography, Civil Rights and Speech she states that the harm of pornography does not lie in the fact that it is offensive but that, at least in developed societies, it is an industry that mass produces sexual intrusion, access to, possession and use of women by men for profit. MacKinnon approaches pornography not from a moral standpoint, but strictly from the political point of view that says pornography is a threat to the gender equality of our nation. I say she is wrong and that not only is pornography okay, but in many cases could contribute to the health of our society. I will quickly agree that pornography should be kept away from the eyes of our children, and that there is a proper time and place for it, but consider some of the acts that, providing that pornogrpahy was ma de illegal, would not only go under ground but might actually become real instead of acted out. Nikola Tesla Argumentative EssayCoetzee challenges this argument by asking the reader about violence in movies. He asks, Are knife thrusts and gunshots not just as real? According to Coetzee, the acts of sex portrayed on a television screen are happening to real people, yet one of the greatest attributes of sex, and one of the things that make it sacred are the feelings involved between the two people. Therefore, if there are no feelings between the two actors, isnt it merely acting? The models are being paid and have most likely been made aware of what will happen and therefore given their consent. What about the possibility that the problem not only lies in the hands of the men who watch these acts on a video tape, but the women who make them. Without the availability of women who were willing to produce this kind of material the pornography industry would come to a screeching halt. Whats there to watch without women? Maybe it all comes down to; If youre not a part of the solutio n, youre part of the problem. The lines between right and wrong are often much more gray than black and white, which is most likely where most people live. No one can say to another what is right and wrong, or what should or shouldnt be done, that decision has to be left to the individuals themselves. Its this issue of pornography having an effect on women who arent even involved in the industry of making or even watching it. We as a nation and even a world stand to learn a lot from simply listening to ourselves. We like to stand up and say what is right, and yet acting on it rarely happens. In order for our society to come to any sort of peace on this issue of pornography, it needs to be accepted that people need to be allowed to make decisions for themselves without the intervention of some government medium, but only as long as those decisions dont effect or hinder the rights of others. Pornography is an immense opportunity for an experiment in freedom of speechand democracy. The largest scale experiment this world has ever seen. Its up to you and its up to me and its up to all of us to explore that opportunity, and its up to all of us not to lose it. Im not yet a parent myself, and I may not be for some time, but I worry about my future children and pornography all the time. Heres what I worry about. I worry that 10 or 15 or even 20 years from now she will come to me and say, Daddy, where were you when they took freedom of the press and speech away from us? and I want to be able to say I was there